The etiology of ischemic stroke is a complex and multifaceted subject, crucial for understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms that lead to cerebral infarction.
Etiology of Ischemic Stroke:
Ischemic stroke occurs when there is an obstruction within a blood vessel supplying blood to the brain. The primary causes of this obstruction and the subsequent ischemia can be categorized into several types:
– Large-Artery Atherosclerosis: This involves the formation of plaques within the major arteries of the brain, such as the carotid or middle cerebral arteries, which can lead to significant stenosis or complete occlusion. Thrombosis occurs when a blood clot forms directly at the site of an atherosclerotic plaque within a cerebral artery. As the plaque builds up, it can rupture, triggering the body’s clotting cascade to form a thrombus at the site of the rupture. This thrombus can grow large enough to occlude the artery, preventing blood flow to the brain and resulting in an ischemic stroke.
– Cardioembolism: Heart conditions, such as atrial fibrillation or heart valve disease, can lead to the formation of emboli that dislodge and travel to the cerebral arteries. An embolism is caused by a blood clot that forms elsewhere in the body, often in the heart or large arteries of the upper chest or neck. The clot, or a piece of it, can break loose and travel through the bloodstream to the brain. When it reaches a blood vessel too small to pass through, it becomes lodged, blocking the blood flow and causing an ischemic stroke.
Atherosclerosis and embolism are the main causes for ischemic stroke. Some other mecanisms, conditions and risk factors are given below:
Arterial spasm, or vasospasm, can significantly worsen an ischemic stroke by further narrowing the arteries and reducing blood flow to the brain, beyond the initial blockage caused by an embolus. This exacerbation of blood flow restriction can increase the extent of brain tissue damage and contribute to more severe neurological deficits.
A hypertensive crisis can precipitate an ischemic stroke by causing a sudden increase in blood pressure, which may lead to the rupture of atherosclerotic plaques, resulting in thrombosis or embolism. Additionally, extremely high blood pressure can compromise the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, potentially exacerbating cerebral edema and increasing the risk of stroke-related complications.
Other heart diseases that can cause ischemic stroke include heart valve disease, which can lead to the formation of clots due to abnormal blood flow, and congestive heart failure, where poor heart function leads to decreased cerebral perfusion and potential clot formation. Coronary artery disease can also contribute to stroke risk by causing atherosclerosis and plaque formation in the arteries, which can result in thromboembolic events.
Diabetes significantly increases the risk of ischemic stroke by contributing to the development of atherosclerosis and enhancing proinflammatory processes, which can lead to blood vessel damage and thrombosis. Additionally, diabetes is associated with poorer post-stroke outcomes and a higher risk of stroke recurrence, emphasizing the importance of managing diabetes to reduce stroke risk and improve recovery.
Thrombophilia, a hypercoagulable state, can increase the risk of ischemic stroke by promoting blood clot formation, which may obstruct cerebral arteries and impede blood flow to the brain. While inherited thrombophilias have an uncertain relationship with ischemic stroke, conditions like antiphospholipid syndrome, an acquired thrombophilia, are recognized as strong risk factors, particularly in younger patients.
Smoking increases the risk of ischemic stroke by accelerating atherosclerosis and raising blood pressure, which can lead to the formation of clots that may block cerebral arteries. Additionally, smoking can worsen stroke prognosis by increasing the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, thereby enhancing edema formation in the brain.
Major surgeries, including orthopedic procedures, can increase the risk of ischemic stroke due to factors such as prolonged immobility, which can lead to thrombus formation, and systemic inflammatory responses that may enhance thrombogenicity. Additionally, these surgeries can cause changes in blood flow dynamics and coagulation pathways, further elevating the stroke risk.
Autoimmune diseases can contribute to the risk of ischemic stroke by causing chronic inflammation and immune system dysregulation, which may lead to vascular injury and increased clot formation. Cancer, on the other hand, can increase stroke risk through cancer-associated hypercoagulability, treatment-related vascular toxicity, and by promoting a prothrombotic state that facilitates clot formation. Both conditions can disrupt normal hemostasis and enhance the potential for arterial occlusion, underscoring the importance of monitoring stroke risk in patients with these underlying health issues.
Oral contraceptives, particularly combined oral contraceptive pills, can increase the risk of ischemic stroke, especially in women with additional risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, and migraine with aura. The risk is particularly notable during the first year of use, likely due to immediate changes in hemostatic balance.
Source:
(1) Oral Contraceptives and Ischemic Stroke Risk – American College of …. https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2018/03/28/14/02/oral-contraceptives-and-ischemic-stroke-risk.
(2) Oral Contraceptives, Hormone Replacement Therapy, and Stroke Risk. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/STROKEAHA.121.038659.
(3) Birth control pills increase risk of ischemic stroke | ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/03/180305092949.htm.
(4) Hormonal contraception and stroke | MedLink Neurology. https://www.medlink.com/articles/hormonal-contraception-and-stroke.
(5) JCI – Immune responses to stroke: mechanisms, modulation, and …. https://www.jci.org/articles/view/135530.
(6) Frontiers | Autoimmunity After Ischemic Stroke and Brain Injury. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00686/full.
(7) Mechanisms of Ischemic Stroke in Cancer Patients. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/clinical-trials/mechanisms-ischemic-stroke-cancer-patients.
(8) Cancer patients and ischemic stroke – Thrombosis Research. https://www.thrombosisresearch.com/article/S0049-3848%2824%2900091-4/pdf.
(9) Brain-Immune Interactions and Ischemic Stroke – JAMA Network. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/1149695.
(10) Cancer screening in hospitalized ischemic stroke patients: a … – Springer. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13167-024-00354-8.
(11) Cancer-related stroke: When to suspect and how to treat?. https://eso-stroke.org/cancer-related-stroke-when-to-suspect-and-how-to-treat/.
(12) Ischemic Stroke in Cancer: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Implications for …. https://vivo.weill.cornell.edu/display/pubid37506734.
(13) The immunology of stroke: from mechanisms to translation – Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/nm.2399.pdf.
(14) The immune system and stroke: from current targets to future therapy. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/imcb.12191.
(15) Update in the Evaluation and Management of Perioperative Stroke – Springer. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11936-019-0779-3.
(16) Stroke – American Association of Neurological Surgeons. https://www.aans.org/Patients/Neurosurgical-Conditions-and-Treatments/Stroke.
(17) Cigarette Smoking and Risk of Different Pathologic Types of Stroke: A …. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neurology/articles/10.3389/fneur.2021.772373/full.
(18) Brain Energy Metabolism in Ischemic Stroke: Effects of Smoking and Diabetes. https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/ijms/ijms-23-08512/article_deploy/ijms-23-08512-v2.pdf?version=1659426644.
(19) Smoking Status and Functional Outcomes After Acute Ischemic Stroke. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.027230.
(20) Smoking and ischemic stroke: A role for nicotine?. https://experts.arizona.edu/en/publications/smoking-and-ischemic-stroke-a-role-for-nicotine.
(21) Brain Energy Metabolism in Ischemic Stroke: Effects of Smoking … – MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/15/8512.
(22) Thrombophilia Testing After Ischemic Stroke – AHA/ASA Journals. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.032360.
(23) Inherited Thrombophilia and the Risk of Arterial Ischemic Stroke: A …. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/JAHA.119.012877.
(24) Hypercoagulable Workup in Thrombotic Cardiovascular Diseases. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.031699.
(25) Inherited Thrombophilia in Ischemic Stroke and Its Pathogenic Subtypes. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/01.str.32.8.1793.
(26) Cerebral ischemic damage in diabetes: an inflammatory perspective …. https://jneuroinflammation.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12s12974-016-0774-5.
(27) Frontiers | Editorial: the role of diabetes in the pathophysiology and …. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2023.1207537/full.
(28) Diabetes and ischaemic stroke: a deadly association. https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/39/25/2387/4846897.
(29) Diabetes and Stroke: What Are the Connections?. https://www.j-stroke.org/upload/pdf/jos-2022-02306.pdf.
(30) The Role of Diabetes in the Pathophysiology and Prognosis of Ischemic …. https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/43098/the-role-of-diabetes-in-the-pathophysiology-and-prognosis-of-ischemic-stroke/magazine.
(31) AFib and Stroke: Link, Risks, Preparation, Prevention – Verywell Health. https://www.verywellhealth.com/afiafib-and-stroke-5217796.
(32) 2021 Guideline for the Prevention of Stroke in Patients with Stroke and …. https://www.heart.org/-/media/Stroke-Images/Infographics/PreventingAnotherStroke2021-Guidelines.pdf.
(33) Atrial fibrillation and ischaemic heart disease: should we use …. https://academic.oup.com/eurheartjsupp/article/22/Supplement_L/L166/5989634.
(34) Ischemic Stroke in Patients With Sinus Node Disease, Atrial …. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.029048.
(35) Atrial Fibrillation and Stroke | National Institute of Neurological …. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/atrial-fibrillation-and-stroke.
(36) Blood Pressure in Acute Ischemic Stroke – eshonline.org. https://www.eshonline.org/esh-content/uploads/2019/07/4.-Blood-Pressure-in-Acute-Ischemic-Stroke.pdf.
(37) Blood pressure management in acute stroke – Stroke and Vascular Neurology. https://svn.bmj.com/content/1/2/72.
Verifiziert von Dr. Petya Stefanova
